Literature Review Train Travel Essay

In order to conduct a thorough review of train travel it is important to first place my own work within the wider context of the existing knowledge in relation to this topic. By looking at studies which have already been conducted it is possible to observe questions which remain unanswered in this field and to look critically at existing literature in order to give my personal study a greater sense of purpose and to ensure that it makes significant contribution to the field. Social Construct of Train Travel A particular area of study relating to train travel which seems interesting to me is that which is pointed out by Watts (2008). In her paper she examines the social, imaginary and material work involved in making a journey by rail. Following ethnographic research consisting of quotations and photographs the author argues that rail passengers are spatially distributed when they make a journey by train. In her analysis she points out that a great deal of research has been conducted into the way in which time and space are constructed in society, however few researchers have conducted a specific analysis of the items and people involved in this creation. As a result this is an area I am keen to investigate as the way in which time and space is created is an area which invites more specific investigation and simultaneously this topic in relation to train travel has had little academic attention. Therefore by investigating this topic I feel I would be able to fill a gap in existing research. A further article which builds on this notion of the social construct of travelling by rail is that of Bissell (2008). In his study he looks at â€Å"some of the fluid relationships between everyday visuality, materiality and mobility through practices of contemporary railway travel in Britain† (1) The article looks primarily at the visual issues in train travel including the interior of the carriage and the landscape viewed through the window in relation to how these affect the perceptions of time, space and location throughout the journey. Such a take on train travel is something which I am very interested in and by using the conclusions made in this paper I would be able to add to the cannon of debate on this topic to contrast the findings of this study with those from an American perspective, to broaden this debate into a multi cultural arena where it may be the case that a vastly different social construct is created through train travel. This notion is extremely interesting to me and is one which, as it is yet to be developed from a transnational context, would therefore allow me to add to the academic body of knowledge on this topic. Train Travel for Business Along with the social construct of train travel another area which much literature has been conducted into is train travel in relation to alleviating problems for businesses. As train travel is often undertaken by business professionals who may need to get from two areas which are relatively far apart and are both subject to high levels of street congestion the degree to which train travel is an effective way for businesses to get to different locations for meetings or negotiations I feel therefore is an important one. One paper which has done this in relation to the relative effectiveness of train travel versus air or road travel for businesses is that of Bhat (1995). In his paper Bhat deploys an extremely qualitative and thorough evaluation of what he terms the ‘independence of irrelevant alternatives’ (IIA) in order for him to be able to come to the conclusion that different approaches to this topic elicited a different set of results. As this paper had a heavy weighting on the effectiveness of specific models in investigating this topic I feel that one way in which it can be improved is to select an approach or a model from the outset, and then stick with this throughout in order for the conclusion to be more orientated around the travel mode as opposed to the model itself. Nonetheless this paper does point out to me that the heteroscedastic model is superior to both the multinomial logit and nested logic models in the quality of results it is able to generate and therefore it will be worth me bearing this in mind when I come to conduct my own research. Another paper on a similar topic to this explores the relationship between the timing of your journey and the choice of which transportation mode you take. Conducted by Nurul Habib et al. (2009) this paper conducts a correlational analysis of these two decisions and comes to the conclusion that unobserved factors contributed to both the decision of which time to undertake your journey and which transport mode to take. Something I found particularly helpful about this paper was that it pointed out the tendency for congested peak travel periods to expand which is a phenomenon known as ‘peak spreading’. As this paper provides empirical evidence for this notion is therefore justifies further investigation owing to the importance of travel between cities in today’s society. Similarly, as this paper utilises a multinomial logit model, a discrete-continuous econometric model and a continuous time hazard model the issues relating to the effectiveness of these models has been highlighted to me as an area I will need to conduct a further amount of research in to in order to ensure that the method I ultimately select is effective in generating reliable results. Along with this issue of which model to apply to my research a study by Kroes and Sheldon (1988) point out another issue I should be aware of when conducting research into train travel. In their article they conduct a review of the stated preference method in the transport sector by another of other academics and assess the value of using this method in comparison to other similar methods to assessing why people have selected the particular mode of transport. As this article covers a range of other train transport related studies it therefore is useful in assessing the literature in this field as a whole as it has a rather broad scope. By looking at the individual studies and the successful and unsuccessful elements of them I am therefore able to select a method which suits my particular study most aptly and as a result conduct a thorough and exhaustive investigation into my chosen area of train travel. Travel Time Key names in the field of rail travel include Laura Watts and David Bissell. Something which they have both written about is the notion of travel time in relation to passenger experience. In a study by Watts and Urry (2008) the authors attempt to provide evidence to dispel the myth that time spent travelling is wasted and dead. In order to encourage funding into travel projects the authors propose that rather that attempting to minimise travel time, by linking the notion of travelling with activities and fantasies they therefore suggest that the perception that travel time is wasted is therefore incorrect. Through looking at activities such as engaging with other passengers, accessing wireless networks, views out the window and using items you have packed in your bag they therefore provide evidence which ultimately represent travel time as a useful being of time where practical and fantasy activities can be indulged, thus encouraging investment into travel projects and infrastructures. I find this research particularly useful as it has called for a revaluation of previously taken for granted attitudes towards travelling by train. By looking at the topic more broadly and dispelling common misconceptions the authors are able to create an article which both covers brand new ground and gives attention to an under investigated issue. The theoretical approach they establish therefore is something I wish to build upon in my own study as the issue is so recent it therefore is yet to have any support or criticism surrounding it. A further study by Bissell also investigates this topic however from a different perspective. Bissell (2010) looks at the notion of community and atmosphere within a train carriage. He notes something which I find interesting, that there is a certain atmosphere within a train carriage which has a powerful effect on the traveller in terms of a reticent passivity which contradicts a set of forces which work when travelling by train which prime an individual to act. As far as I am aware this societal approach to the atmosphere on a train carriage has only been conducted in relation to psychology and obedience before and therefore it is very interesting that Bissell has looked at it within the field of transport. Whilst I feel that this study is extremely relevant and is something a great number of people may be able to relate to some criticism I have is that the notion he is describing is extremely intangible and whilst he does provide extensive primary research as evidence the atmosphere is difficult to pin and down and evaluate scientifically. Another study on this topic is that of Ole (2009). This study looks at the idea of mobility in urban areas. The author describes the tendency for modern cities to be represented not just by their static venues but also by their transit spaces and argues that there should be a re configuration of the way in which identities of place are conceptualised and that transit spaces ought to become a location for meaningful interaction and pleasure. As with the Watt and Urry article this paper calls for a revaluation of the attitudes towards train travel and therefore provides a useful framework which forms a base upon which it would be possible to build upon and expand in my own study. Conclusion Throughout my literature study I have been able to identify the key theorists in the field of train travel and highlight some potent and relevant issues in this area of study. By looking critically at research which has already been conducted I am now able to ensure that my own study brings new ideas into academic discourse and that my investigation does not cover ground already subject to analysis. The gaps I have noted and other observations made throughout the body of my text therefore now place me in an ideal position to be able to come to a conclusion based on relevant research which will be will informed and critical in its scope. Works Cited Bissell, David. â€Å"Visualising everyday geographies: practices of vision through travel-time† Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 34 (2008) 42- 60 Bissell  David. â€Å"Passenger mobilities: affective atmospheres and the sociality of public transport.† Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 28 (2010) 270- 89 Bhat, Chandra. â€Å"A heteroscedastic extreme value model of intercity travel mode choice.† Transportation Research Part B: Methodological 29 (1995) 471- 83 Kroes, Eric P. and Sheldon, Robert J., â€Å"Stated Preference Methods: An Introduction.† Journal of Transport Economics and Policy 22 (1988), 11- 25 Nurul Habib, Khandker, Day, Nicholas, and Miller, Eric. â€Å"An investigation of commuting trip timing and mode choice in the Greater Toronto Area: Application of a joint discrete-continuous model.† Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice 43 (2009) 639- 53 Ole, Jensen B. â€Å"Flows of Meaning, Cultures of Movements – Urban Mobility as Meaningful Everyday Life Practice.† Mobilities 4 (2009) 139-58 Watts, Laura. â€Å"The art and craft of train travel.† Social and Cultural Geography 9 (2008): 711- 26 Watts  Laura and Urry  John. â€Å"Moving methods, travelling times.† Environment and Planning

Early childhood educators Essay

Theorist What contribution to the field of ECE did this theorist make? When and Where? Identify historical issues and current trends in the early childhood care profession. Share an example of how the theorists work is used today. Rousseau Rousseau was the author of several education books; he proposed that children be educated in moral, harmonious environments free from adult dominance (Follari, 2011). Rousseau was influential in both Europe and America in the mid to late 1700’s. Rousseau emphasized out of the home schooling and viewed children as innately good. Rousseau reduced the importance of learning by reading and emphasized learning by experience. An example of his work is seen today as children learn through play. Pestalozzi Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi published a book in 1801 that helped influence the development of seeing his theories put into action. The â€Å"Pestalozzi method† was put into practice in 1805 at his school in Yverdon (Johann, n. d. ) Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi was an education reformer who was very passionate about getting education to poor children and teaching methods designed to strengthen the students own abilities. He wanted children to be taught as a whole ( Follari, 2011). An example of Pestalozzi’s work can be seen through field trips, puzzles, blocks, and physical exercise. Froebel Froebel made Kindergarten spread like wildfire through Europe and eventually to the U. S. He created what is known as Froebel gifts. He designed balls, wooden block, tiles, sticks, and rings to demonstrate that children could learn while at play (Follari, 2011). Froebel based his beliefs in teaching children on rationalism. He thought children could gain knowledge by logically thinking through concepts from a given premise. He started by giving his gifts and having the children work through them (Follari, 2011). An example of Froebel’s work can been seen through Kindergarten (Follari, 2011). Peabody Elizabeth Peabody opened the first English speaking kindergarten in Boston, MA in 1859(Follari, 2011). She also created the American Froebel Society to provide some regulations and originality of kindergarten programs. (Follari, 2011). Elizabeth Peabody was against the hands-on objects method of instruction. She liked individualized instruction instead. She thought children needed careful direction to develop properly (Follari, 2011). An example of her work is the acceptance of kindergarten as an accepted institution in U. S. education (Today, n. d. ). Piaget During the 1970’s and 1980’s, Piagets theories inspired the transformation of European and American education (Follari, 2011). Piaget believed learning occurs as a result of experience, both physical and logical. He thought knowledge could not truly be formed until the learner has matured to the mental status that the learning is specified to. He believed that children made moral judgments based on their own observations of the world (Follari, 2011). Piaget’s theories were used in the developing of the Dynabook programming system (Jean, n. d. ) Vygotsky. Lev Vygotsky proposed a theory of the development of higher cognitive functions in children that saw the emergence of the reasoning as emerging through practical activity in a social environment. Most of his work was influence in Eastern Europe in the 1920’s and later on in America (Lev, 2013) Vygotsky believed that children organized their thinking by private speech. His theory suggests that children have developmental rages which the child can be assisted in operating at higher levels than are possible alone (Follari, 2011). An example of his work would be scaffolding (Follari, 2011). Gesell. Dewey John Dewey’s education philosophy helped forward the progressive education movement, and spawned the development of experiential education programs and experiments (Follari, 2011). John Dewey believed that education should be based on children’s interests and should involve them in active experiences. He thought an active curriculum should be integrated rather than divided into subject matter segments(Follari, 2011). Problem solving activities. References Follari, L. M. (2011). Foundations and Best Practices in Early Childhood Education: History, Theories and Approaches to Learning (2nd ed., pp. 24-47). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Jean Piaget. (n. d. ). Jean Piaget. Retrieved from http://www. nndb. com/people/359/000094077/ Lev Vygotsky. (2013, November 17). Wikipedia. Retrieved from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi: Pedagogy, education and social justice. (n. d. ). Infedorg. Retrieved from http://infed. org/mobi/johann-heinrich-pestalozzi-pedagogy-education-and-social-justice/ Today in History. (n. d. ). : May 16. Retrieved from http://memory. loc. gov/ammem/today/may16. html.

Creepy Craig

Creepy Craig It was almost like lying in a boiling rubber blowup pool. The air was thick and Zara couldn’t manage to fall asleep. The strange noises from across the hall filled the silence of her apartment again. Zara always felt suspicious of the man who lived there, because when she waited for the lift to go to the floor of her unit, he would stand there at least four times a week and watch her as the doors closed. The creepy thing about that was, when the lift reached the sixth floor, he would be there as she stepped out.She always thought of him as her own personal stalker. Creepy Craig. Maybe he was harmless? Who cares! Zara wanted out. The last time she got out of the lift at her own floor, Creepy Craig was standing there leering at her offering ANZAC cookies. Enough was enough. She needed to get out of his apartment now. Even Ben, her boyfriend thought the guy was a creep. He wanted to sort him out but Zara didn’t want him to do that. Right now, she wished Ben wa s at home instead of playing Rugby with the local club in Southport. She reached for her mobile phone and called him.Zara was pleased to hear that Ben was on his way home. Even better, he had already been searching and had found a nice new apartment. He wanted her to see the next day. Their new place was amazing, right on the Broadwater overlooking water which glistened like diamonds in the sunlight as the squeals of the kids with their families echoed into the distance. Having a new unit was great. Just what Zara and Ben wanted. The relief of not worrying about Creepy Craig any more made her feel relaxed for the first time in months.Sitting on the balcony with the blistering Australian twelve o’clock sun hovering above, Zara and Ben relaxed with a refreshing icy cold glass of beer. They talked about their plans for tomorrow afternoon’s family picnic at the Broadwater and how Australia Day this year was going to be amazing. Ben would make the waterslide for the kids; a unty Sue would take the name out of the hat to see who was going to cook the barbeque this year. Zara and Ben both hoped it wasn’t going to be Gazza again. Last time he cooked he burnt all the sausages and set fire to his own shirt.Zara thought he had one too many beers that day. Aside from the disaster last year, they were both getting excited. As the afternoon wore on and the heat of the sun dissipated, Zara and Ben were feeling very relaxed. Out of nowhere, loud crashes resonated as if pots and pans were being hurtled across a room. From the unit above, the crash was accompanied by a girl yelling and a man swearing. Unsettled by the noise and wondering if the girl was okay, Ben left their unit and got the elevator to the eleventh floor. He followed the sound like a detective finding clues to a murder scene.Zara waited anxiously on the balcony on the floor below, worrying about what was actually happening up there and if Ben really should have gone to investigate. Everythin g went strangely silent. An ear-piercing scream split through the air. There, in a single second, but seeming like slow motion, a beautiful young girl glided past her balcony like a feather. Zara met her eyes and in a heartbeat she felt like she saw the girl’s whole life in a flash. She was gone. Zara froze like a statue. Ben burst through the door, demanding to know what had happened as he couldn’t get anyone to open to his knocking at the unit above.Zara couldn’t get any words out. All she could manage to do was point to the balcony repeatedly. When Ben returned, he looked pale and sick. They stood looking at each other for a few seconds; they both seemed to come out of their stupor after Ben called the police. People were out on their balconies all over the building, gazing in shock at the terrible sight below. Police and ambulance sirens blared towards their building. The afternoon ended in a haze of uniforms all over the place. Because Zara and Ben’s unit was directly below where the girl fell, they had to be questioned by the police.They told their stories and signed statements. Their fantastic day had ended in tragedy. They felt quite sick as they went to bed that night. When the brightness of the morning woke Zara and Ben, they discussed whether they should cancel their plans but both really wanted to get out of the unit and be with their family and friends. So it was decided that Ben would take the esky down to the basement, pack the car, drive up to reception and pick Zara up from there. After bed Ben phoned to say he was on the way, Zara waited at the reception.She felt uneasy about being on her own but it was only a few minutes until she would be out of the building and with Ben. She shared the lift with the manager of the building, Steve. They briefly discussed the sad and frightening event of yesterday. Steve couldn’t say very much because it was still a police matter. When the lift doors opened a t the ground f loor, Zara looked up and standing in the foyer was Creepy Craig. â€Å"That’s the poor man who lost his girlfriend over the balcony yesterday. † Steve said to Zara whispering the news.

Computer Fraud Tools Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Computer Fraud Tools - Essay Example This software works best in machines that contain 64MB or more of system memory, with a processor of Pentium II 400 MHz core or a more advanced processor than this, and lastly it can work in Vista, Windows 7, and XP, 98, 2000, 2002, and 2003 (Sammons, 2012). This program has the following features: deleted files recovery, missing folders and files recovery, live updates are available for the program, full support for long string variables and names, and it fully supports SCSI, EIDE, IDE, and PAN, SATA, ZIP drives (Mary-Jo Kranacher, Richard Riley, Joseph T. Wells ,2010). It is used to recover files deleted from NTFS and FAT based operating systems. This program cost about $29, and can be accessed online with a full license or bought from different outlets worldwide. Disk doctors undelete (Mary-Jo Kranacher, Richard Riley, Joseph T. Wells, 2010) This program can recover deleted files on SATA, IDE, ATA, SCSI hard disk drives, memory sticks, SD cards, USB hard drives, and external Zip d rives. It supports recovery in the FAT32, FAT, FAT16, NTFS5 and the normal NTFS file systems in the following operating systems: XP, 2003 and 2000, Windows VISTA (Sammons, 2012). It recovers files that are accidentally deleted on a window running operating system. This software costs $49.00 USD. Tools that can be used to collect digital evidence from a cell phone are softwares, which use forensic abilities, to recover data that is not currently in the phone. These programs include; Cell phone and data mining (Androulidakis, 2012) This tool involves evidence from cellular devices playing a critical role in the component of data mining. This ability is often overlooked in the use of digital evidence (Androulidakis, 2012). This tool involves the export of information from various digital devices like the cell phones. For cell phones, you export the call logs, stored files from the phone and possibly the net visited sites if it is web enabled. After exporting, then the data is imported into an analytical software package, whereby the experts and investigators using the data mining techniques can visualize and diagram a timeline of events or a criminal enterprise. To understand the complex relationships of the timeline of events and criminal enterprise, the graphical representation would do a lot better for investigators and the jury in the courtroom presentation on a criminal investigation.an example of the is the AFLOGICAL 1.4 investigation tool (Androulidakis, 2012). This tool tested personal Information Management data was attempted including access to the multimedia messaging services, and it runs on Mac OS X 10.5.4. It is quite an expensive tool. Camera (Androulidakis, 2012) A cell phone camera can be used as a forensic tool to collect digital evidences (Androulidakis, 2012). A camera takes photos and subsequently stores them in memory in the phone or an external storage device. These tools are fairly cheap and must be attached to the phone and connected to t he phone system. So it must be compatible with the cell device that it is to be installed. Cell phone analysis tools These are tools that are used to read a SIM card. A SIM (subscriber identity module) accommodates text messages, recently dialed

Coastal engineering Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Coastal engineering - Assignment Example This has brought about constant developments and maintenance of the coastal zone to guard against flooding, erosion, and sediment transport. Waves have a major influence on the marine environment and ultimately on the planets climate. Waves travel effortlessly along the waters surface. This is made possible by small movements of the water molecules. The wind blows over the water, changing its surface into ripples and waves. As waves grow in height, the wind pushes them along faster and higher. Waves can become unexpectedly strong and destructive. As waves enter shallow water, they become taller and slow down, eventually breaking on the shore.   Waves have crests (the peak of the wave) and troughs (the lowest point on the wave). The wavelength, or horizontal size of the wave, is determined by the horizontal distance between two crests or two troughs. The vertical size of the wave is determined by the vertical distance between the two. Waves travel in groups called wave trains. Waves vary in size and strength based on wind speed and friction on the water’s. The small wave trains created by a boat’s movement on the water are called wake. High winds and storms can generate large groups of wave trains with enormous energy. Undersea earthquakes or other sharp motions in the seafloor can sometimes generate enormous waves, called tsunamis (inappropriately known as tidal waves) that can devastate entire coastlines. Regular patterns of smooth, rounded waves in the open ocean are called swells. In waves, it appears the water is moving forward, but only a small amount of water is actually moving. It is the wave’s energy that is moving and since water is a flexible medium for energy transfer, it looks like the water itself is moving. In the open ocean, the friction moving the waves generates energy within the water. This energy is then passed between water molecules in ripples

Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Strategic Hospitality Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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The Myth of the Latin Woman - Author Judith Ortiz Cofer Essay

The Myth of the Latin Woman - Author Judith Ortiz Cofer - Essay Example Having the Latin origin, the author had very closely witnessed the hatred her community had been experiencing for the last several decades. Cofer declares her own community as equally responsible of its pathetic condition provided they failed to adopt the norms, mores, values, taboos and traditions prevailing in the mainstream culture. Lastly, she emphasized upon the difficulties of the single mothers during the brought up of her children and is determined to transfer the same filial love to her next generation she was bestowed upon as a child from her loving parents. Cofer’s splendid essay wide opens the cultural values of Latin American families in a very powerful manner, from where the readers can learn a lot about the cultural and social activities of the Hispanic community. It conveys the message of love, sacrifice and courage to the readers. Cofer strives to reveal the Latin parents’ passion during child-rearing. Being the highly dedicated and enthusiastic parents, the Latin individuals take notice of each and every action performed by their children and teach their next generation the religious obligations by taking them to the churches regularly. The readers learn that the Latin families eat, dine, move and enjoy in congregation and pay due attention to the dressing, and mannerism of the young members. Consequently, the Latin children are brought up under extreme care. Similarly, the readers learn about the continuation of the Puerto Rican customs, norms and traditions followed by the Latin mothers while preparing their daug hters for church prayers, parties, functions and ceremonies, which are quite different from the mainstream cultural traits of the USA. The sweet memories of family life, described by the author serve as the fresh, enticing breeze for the readers. The unflinching support rendered by the older ladies to the young girls of their family fill the hearts of the readers with deep

Global Economic Crisis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Global Economic Crisis - Essay Example According to Ernhardt and Brighams 2010 book, the downgrade of T-bonds has the potential to cause a disastrous economic situation across the country. A single step down in credit rating is often a bad sign for future rating decisions, and so the US would be at a greater risk of gradually falling into economic despair. As the dollar continues to drop in worth, foreign investors like those in China would predictably respond by trading their US T-bonds for domestic currency to conserve value. The response would add to pressure on the dollar, further weakening it, and continuing a vicious cycle that could result in the complete collapse of the US economy. Since the writing of the previously mentioned book the US T-bond has experienced the first downgrade by an investor watchdog agency, and as of now the country has not crumbled into economic obscurity. However, the country remains financially compromised and may be yet to experience the first ripples of the effects predicted by the

The Viking Age Essay Example for Free

The Viking Age Essay The aim of this essay is to critically describe daily life in Viking Ireland in either Dublin or Waterford. For the purpose of this essay I will concentrate on Dublin, as there is a substantial amount of archaeological evidence that was found and excavated by archaeologists. It has been widely recognised from extensive archaeology excavations that Fishamble Street and Winetavern Street as well as High Street were pivotal centres in which the Vikings took residence and went about their daily life (Hall 1990, 25). This essay will look at many different aspects of Viking daily life in Dublin, including their occupational activity, the types of houses they lived in, their burials and the type of objects they traded on a regular basis. This essay will firstly deal with the houses and types of dwellings that the Vikings of Dublin were accustomed to. The major excavations that took place between the years 1961 and 1981 in the areas of Wood Quay and Christchurch (Rosedahl 1982, 229-230). The excavations reveal to us that the normal everyday Viking dweller lived in houses that were mostly composed of wattle and daub (Rosedahl 1982, 230). Other characteristics of the type of house a Dublin Viking would live in was that the shape would always be rectangular accompanied by rounded corners and end walls (Clarke and Simms 1985, 126). The majority of the houses also had small cubicles at either end of the main house. The presence of animal bone shows us that the people of Dublin ate meat. There have been thirteen levels of preservation located on Wood Quay. This has been dated to 920 A. D These houses once they are no use; are knocked down immediately and a new house is built on top of the old one (Rosedahl 1982, 231). People of Viking Age Dublin were very skilled and well-crafted trades people. Many Dublin craftsmen were highly skilled in areas such as the manufacture of bone and antler combs (Clarke and Simms 1985, 134). The bone that was excavated is known to be of the red deer (Rosedahl 1982, 231). These Dublin craftsmen also worked with leather, wooden objects such as the manufacture of ploughs, bone whorls and needles and pins. Archaeological evidence has also shown that the crafts of ship building, bone carving, carpentry and iron manufacture have taken place (Rosedahl 1982, 231). The majority of Viking men would have spent their own daily life manufacturing these and this would have probably been their main source of income. These craftsmen worked with not only the one style, but with many different ones. The Vikings of Dublin also manufactured broad arm rings. This would have mainly taken place for the circulation and storage if timber (Larsen 2001, 57-59). To illustrate the importance of amber working in Viking Age Dublin an amber workshop has been excavated. A wide range of objects have been uncovered including beads, pendants and rings (Clarke and Simms 1984, 136). For the most part they were highly influenced from outside sources (Hall 1990, 26). However the archaeological evidence of Dublin shows us that it was the metalworkers that were possibly one of the most common and important tradesmen. Tongs and hammers that were manufactured by smiths have been found in numerous burials in Kilmainham and Islandbridge (Hall 1990, 58). Also at a site known as Granby Row there have been other metal objects uncovered such as rivets, an iron spearhead and sword. Also two swords, four spearheads, a shield boss and a copper alloy buckle that was thinned were excavated at the College Green site OFloinn 1998, 134-135). Including these trades occupying the daily lives of those in Viking Dublin, there were other activities that were also taking place. Extensive archaeological evidence has been uncovered to suggest that there was a lot of trade and gift exchange taking place as well (Clarke and Simms 1984, 135). Such items that show this include pieces of porphyry from the Italian capital, an exotic ring made of gold that has a red garnet that appears to be Frankish. Also a carved boss made of wood was uncovered, whose origins are from the northern province of Ireland (Clarke and Simms, 135). This archaeological evidence also proves to us that the Vikings lead a reasonable wealthy life or perhaps a very wealthy life, as trading precious objects took place on a regular ongoing basis. In relation to Viking graves and burial customs, there are two main cemeteries in Dublin. These are that of Kilmainham and Island Bridge. It is known that there are 43 furnished burials in all. However Kilmainham is the largest with 30 furnished burials in all. With the substantial amount of grave goods present in both sites it should be said that the Dublin Vikings thought very much of their dead (Larsen 2001, 67). Weapons such as swords, daggers and other inflicting weapons tend to dominate the female graves (Larsen 2001,68). Also for craft and domestic use tanged knives and a range of different buckles have been uncovered, that people used to keep their clothes on. However the most elaborate and decorative item found was that of the Kilmainham brooch (Larsen 2001, 72). It is widely thought that this item is definitely the single richest Viking Age grave good from an Irish context (Larsen 2001, 72). In conclusion this essay has discussed, analysed and described Viking daily life in Dublin. By using the appropriate archaeological evidence one can see how the Vikings of Dublin went about their routine on a daily basis. Also the main themes that this essay has included are that of the Vikings crafts that they done to make a living. This essay also looked at the type of houses, by taking into consideration their size and shape. When writing this essay I also looked at trade and the type of goods that the Dublin Vikings traded and treasured. Through excellent preservation of Viking graves at Islandbridge and Kilmainham this essay took a brief look at Viking graves and what their attitude was to what goods should be buried with males and females. Bibliography Hall, R. 1990. Viking Age Archaeology in Britain and Ireland. Princes Risborough. Larsen, Anne-Christine, 2001. The Vikings in Ireland Roskilde, The Viking Ship Museum. Rosedahl, E.1992. The Vikings. Harmondsworth. Wallace, P. 1985. The Archaeology of Viking Dublin. In H.B. Clarke A. Simms (eds) The Comparative History of Urban Origins in Non-Roman Europe.

Non-invasive Strategy for Isolating Cancer Cells

Non-invasive Strategy for Isolating Cancer Cells Here, we report non-invasive strategy for isolating cancer cells by autonomously propelled carbon nanotube (CNT) microrockets. H2O2-driven oxygen (O2) bubble-propelled microrockets were synthesized using CNT and Fe3O4 nanoparticles in the inner surface and covalently conjugating transferrin on the outer surface. Results show that self-propellant microrockets can specifically capture cancer cells. Self-propelled micro-motors have paved the way to exciting applications in biomedical field such as delivering drugs,[1] nanoscale transport and assembly,[2] motion-based biosensing disease markers and microrobotics.[3] The usage of such micromachines to transport diverse payloads is one of the next prospects for nanomotor development.[4-6] Particularly chemically powered micro-/nanomotors based on different chemical compositions and structures, that are capable of moving autonomously in the presence of hydrogen peroxide fuel are being given emphasis.[2,3,7,8] Among these, self-propelled microshuttle is lucrative for practical biomedical applications.[2-7]. Especially, fabrication of nano and micropropellant systems featuring specific cell recognitions in shortest time frame is highly anticipated and yet challenging. We report for the first time a chemically-powered CNT based magnetic micromachine for isolating and transporting cancer cells. Described microrocket technology could find a potential application as a bio-analytical micromachine for selective and rapid isolation of circulating cancer cells (CTCs). Detecting CTCs is a challenge due to the extremely low occurrence (10-100 per milliliter of blood) of CTCs among a large number of hematologic cells in the blood (109 mL-1).[10,11] Several strategies, involving immunomagnetic beads or microfluidic devices, have been designed for isolating and accounting CTCs from blood.[12-14] However, most of these approaches are limited by their slow rate and low CTC-capture yield.[13,14] Currently, only one technology is available commercially (CellSearch ®) to identify CTCs from the blood of cancer patients.[9] We recently reported rapid and specific isolation of CTC based on magneto-dendritic nanosystem [12] Here we show the preparation of bio-functionalized microrockets and their application for rapid isolation of cancer cells. Microrocket system consists of three functional components: (i) CNT, (ii) iron oxide (Fe3O4) nanoparticles for magnetic isolation, and (iii) Tf ligand (Tf) for specific targeting. Fe3O4 nanoparticles were loaded in the inner surface of CNTs as described previously with some modifications.[15] The unique advantages of the microrocket platform are: i) low density of microparticles ii) instantaneous propellant motion of microparticles (downward and upward) with an ability to ‘strike’ cancer cells in its path, iii) rapid capture (~5 min) of TfR-overexpressing (TfR+)cancer cells at the clinically relevant concentrations (approximately 1 CTC per 105 blood cells), iv) specific targeting ability due to presence of Tf ligand, which is generally used to capture cancer cells overexpressing TfR on their membranes, v) magnetic isolation of the captured cells owing to the presence of Fe3O4 nanoparticles and (v) large surface area and internal volume allows multiple components to be loaded onto the nanotube. We followed a multi-step process (Figure 1A) to synthesize the Tf-CNT-Fe3O4 platform. Figure 1A displays the TEM image of Fe3O4-CNTs. We observed that Fe3O4 particles deposited inside CNT had a uniform size of ~ 6 nm (see supporting information; Figure S1). Moreover, the image indicates the successful assembly of the Fe3O4 nanoparticles in the nanotubes with 4~8 nm i.d.Coupling of Tf on CNT-Fe3O4 composite was confirmed by Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy (see supporting information; Figure S2). Further, Tf attachment quantified by a modified Bradford procedure was found to be ~ 0.2 mg of Tf per g of CNT-Fe3O4. The magnetic property of Tf-CNT-Fe3O4 particles was also visually evaluated in aqueous medium by placing it next to a permanent magnet (see supporting information; Figure S3). Figure 1B illustrates the self-propulsion of suspended Tf-CNT-Fe3O4 microparticles mimicking microrocket in a solution containing H2O2. Microrockets initially propelled instantaneously towards the bottom of the tube and gradually reverted direction upwards. We noticed that the speed of the Tf-CNT-Fe3O4 microrocket was strongly dependent on the H2O2 concentration (Figure S4). As expected, the microrockets display highest speed at the maximum H2O2 (8%) concentration tested in aqueous solution. The upward directional speed of the microrockets decreases gradually from 0.90 mm†¢s-1 (at 8%) to 0.68 mm †¢ s-1 (at 4%), and subsequently to 0.56 mm †¢ s-1 (at 1%) per unit area of the particles. We hypothesize that microrocket motion is influenced by the surrounding H2O2 concentration as it affects the rate of the Fe3+ reduction to Fe2+. Notably such chemically powered micromotors are commonly incompatible with the high ionic strength environment of biological fluids and extending the scope of such microrockets to physiological conditions is a key challenge. So we studied the ability of our microrockets to propel in biological fluid such as Dulbaco’s modified eagle medium (DMEM) cell media. Interestingly, the microrockets were found to propel efficiently even in DMEM containing 4% of H2O2. Figure 1B shows images of the microrocket at different vertical positions during its motion for a complete cycle. Initially, it was observed that microrockets, of smaller dimension, floated at the meniscus due to the low density and attached O2 bubbles, formed by Fe3O4 nanoparticle catalyzed decomposition of H2O2. Once the smaller bubbles dispersed, a downward movement was observed (Figure 1B) due to the gravitational force. In the meantime, more O2 bubbles formed and adhered to the Tf-CNT-Fe3O4 particle and in few seconds, the adhered O2 bubble grew larger by coalescence of several smaller bubbles. Eventually the total volume of the bubble was sufficiently high, so that the buoyancy force balanced the gravitational and viscous forces and the microrocket moved upward (Figure 1B).[16,17] Figure 2A shows the tracking trajectory of a microrocket in cell media, indicating a vertical motion. It is noted that the microrocket moved with high average speed of 0.38 mm †¢ s-1 in the downward direction and 0.62 mm †¢ s-1 in the upward movement per unit area of the particle (about 12 and 16 times its body length per second). This corresponds to a large driving force of over 231 and 300 pN, based on the drag force F=6πΠ¼rv, where v is the speed, and ÃŽ ¼ is the viscosity of the medium and r is the radius of the microrocket. Further, when the concentration of H2O2 in cell media was varied there was notable effect on the speed as shown in Figure 2B. The speed of the microrocket at 8% H2O2 concentration was ~1.9 and~1.4 times higher in the downward and upward direction than at 1% of H2O2 concentration. Also, the number of times the microrocket moved up and down changed. At high H2O2 concentration (8%) the total distance moved by the microrocket was ~2 times more than that at lower concentration (1%) (Figure S5 and S6). Moreover, it was also revealed that the speed of the microrockets was only slightly affected in DMEM. The speed of the microrocket was 10% less in DMEM cell media compared to aqueous media containing 4% H2O2. Partial blocking of Fe3O4 surface by adsorbed proteins and increased solution viscosity may be respon sible for this moderated speed. We validated the application of microrockets for selective and rapid isolation of cancer cells from a heterogeneous population by separating HCT116 cells from an artificial CTC suspension. We placed cell suspension in DMEM at the concentration of (1 x 106 cells mL-1) containing 4% H2O2. Tf-CNT-Fe3O4 microrockets were incubated in cell suspension for 5 min to target and isolate the HCT116 cells. We envisioned that Tf-functionalized microrockets could strike and selectively bind suspended HCT116 cells through the TfRs and finally transport them at the top of the tube from where they can be retrieved. Figure 3A illustrates the pick-up and transport of a cancer cell by a microrocket. On the other hand, Figure 3B shows cancer-cell-loaded microrocket. The force necessary for moving a relatively large (~16 mm) cancer cell is considerably high. The minimum force necessary for transporting such large cells at one body length per second in DMEM estimated from Stokes’ law is 1.88 pN. The high speed of the microrocket is slightly affected by the cell loading (e.g., decreasing from 0.62 to 0.50 mm†¢s-1 in cell media), reflecting its high towing force. We observed that Tf-CNT-Fe3O4 microrockets can efficiently pick-up and transport HCT116 cancer cells. We observed rapid action and selective targetability of Tf-CNT-Fe3O4 microrocket in capturing cells from a suspension. It also confirmed that the isolated cells remained normal for ~30 min and could be used for further studies (see supporting information; Figure S7). In addition, the HCT116 cell viability was also evaluated in DMEM containing 4% H2O2 after 1 hour. The study showed majority of the cells (78%) remained viable (Figure S7). Furthermore, in order to confirm that the specific interaction of Tf-CNT-Fe3O4 microrocket with TfR+ cells (such as, HCT116) is because of Tf, we used CNT- Fe3O4 microrocketwithout Tf to capture TfR+ cells (as a negative control). We found that no cells were attached to the CNT-Fe3O4 microrocket even after 5 min incubation. Hence, experiments with HCT116 confirm that after 5 min incubation, there is very little non-specific interaction of cells with the Tf-CNT-Fe3O4microrocket. In addition, to evaluate the effect of self propulsion of Tf-CNT-Fe3O4 microrocket on HCT116 capture, Tf-CNT (without Fe3O4) was used. It was found that Tf-CNT could capture only ~ 22% HCT116 cells (see supporting information; Figure S8). The study shows that self-propulsion of Tf-CNT-Fe3O4 microrocket plays a significant role in cell capture and isolation. Our final goal was to quantify the capture efficiency of microrocket while targeting cancer cells from an artificial CTC suspension. We spiked human peripheral blood mononuclear (hPBMC) cells with TfR+ GFP-labeled HCT116 cells in various hPBMC: HCT116 ratios (e.g. 1 x 103:1, 1 x 104:1 and 1 x 105:1). Cell suspensions of different ratios were incubated with Tf-CNT-Fe3O4 microrocket for 5 min prior to magnetic isolation. Following isolation, both the captured and the residual cell suspensions were imaged to estimate the number of captured and uncaptured HCT116-GFP cells in each sample. Assuming the number of captured HCT116-GFP cells to be NC, the number of uncaptured HCT116-GFP cells to be NU and following the method of Zheng et al, the capture efficiency (C.E.) for each dilution was estimated as:[18 (1) Figure 4A shows image of captured cells (green) attached to the Tf-CNT-Fe3O4 particles (black). As expected, Tf-CNT-Fe3O4 particles are seen to aggregate following magnetic separation. Figure 4B shows an image of the residual cell suspension containing hPBMC cells and, in this particular case, a single uncaptured HCT116-GFP cell is seen (shown in red circle). Figure 4C shows a plot of recovered vs. spiked HCT116 cells. The % of recovered HCT116 cells for the clinically relevant range of HCT116:hPBMC ratios (1:1 x 104 to 1:1 x 105) are highlighted separately in the histogram of Figure 4D. Cell capture studies confirmed that Tf-CNT-Fe3O4 particles can successfully capture ~ 85% of the cancer cells within 5 min from a background of hPBMNCs even when the abundance of cancer cells is as low as ~0.001% of total number of cells. Experimental Section Preparation of CNT-Fe3O4 microparticle: Purification and oxidation of CNT were carried out using a previously described literature procedure.[18] Oxidized CNTs (AO-CNT) were then mixed with ethylene glycol and water. FeCl3â‹…6H2O and FeCl2â‹…4H2O were added to the mixture and sonicated for 2 h, followed by vigorous stirring for 4 h. The pH was adjusted to ~10 using NH4OH. The resulting CNT-Fe3O4 microparticles were isolated by magnetic separation, washed with distilled water and dried overnight under vacuum. Conjugation of Tf with CNT-Fe3O4: 2 mg of Tf was dissolved in 2 mL of D.I. water and 1.0 mg of the CNT-Fe3O4 was added to it. EDC.HCl was added to this reaction mixture (adding the same number of moles of EDC.HCl as Tf) and constantly stirred at room temperature for 4 h. The reaction time was limited to 4 h to avoid any possible intramolecular cross linking. Resulting Tf conjugated CNT-Fe3O4 microparticles were isolated by magnetic separation and dried at room temperature under vacuum. Tf-CNT-Fe3O4-cell imaging: HCT116-GFP cells were plated at a density of 2 x 105 mL-1 on glass coverslips in 35 mm culture dishes. After 24 h, HCT116 cells in 1 mL DMEM were treated with 500  µg mL-1 of Tf-CNT-Fe3O4 in a NMR tube for 5 min and then subjected to magnetic field separation. The cell pellet obtained after a minute in the strong magnetic field was removed from the remaining cell suspension (containing uncaptured cancer cells). The captured cell pellet and the residual cell suspension was imaged by a Zeiss microscope (Zeiss, Observer.Z1) fitted with a 20 Ãâ€" objective using both bright field and fluorescence channels and the number of cells were counted using ImageJ plugin.[19 Estimation of capture efficiency from artificial CTC suspension: Artificial CTC samples were prepared by spiking hPBMCs with GFP-labeled HCT116 cells at specific ratios (1:103-1:105 for HCT116:hPBMC respectively). 500  µg mL-1 Tf-CNT-Fe3O4 was added to the 1 mL of artificial CTC mixture incubated for 5 min and then subjected to magnetic field separation. The cell pellet obtained after a minute in the strong magnetic field was removed from the remaining cell suspension (containing hPBMCs and uncaptured cancer cells). The captured cell pellet and the residual cell suspension was imaged and the number of HCT116 cells were counted using ImageJ cell counter plugin.[19 Motion parameters, cell culture, isolation of human hPBMC and characterization are included in the supporting information. Conclusions We demonstrated a novel CNT based microrocket that propels efficiently by the thrust of O2 bubbles. The new self-propelled microrockets display ultrafast propulsion in aqueous solution as well as in DMEM. The microrocket displayed a driving force of over 231 and 300 pN in DMEM containing 4% H2O2. The speed and the distance travelled by the microrocket can be manipulated by changing the H2O2 concentration. The designed multifunctional microrocket has the ability to (i) rapidly target (~5 min) and efficiently capture (~85%) TfR+ cancer cells from an artificial CTC-like suspension, (ii) magnetic isolation of the captured cells from peripheral blood cells and (iii) subsequent high resolution imaging. We envision that such self-powered micromotors may provide a new and unique approach for rapid and efficient extraction of CTCs from biological fluids and hence for the early diagnosis of cancer and its recurrence.

Specialist sub-subcontractor

Specialist sub-subcontractor 1.0 Introduction In construction practice, not only project manager, Architect, Quantity Surveyor, contractor carrying the important role, specialist sub-subcontractor also carrying the important role in order to success the construction project. A sub contractor is a person or a company hired by a general contractor to perform part of the work of a construction job. For example, a contractor might be building a house, but might hire a firm or a person specializing in electrical engineering to install the electrical systems needed in the house. Generally the subcontractor will either relieve the main contractor of part of the building work, or will be able to perform work at lower expense or at a greater skill level than the general contractor could. (Tricia Ellis- Christensen 2003-2009) http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-subcontractor.htm Normally sub-contractor carry out the works like electrical, heating and cooling devices (HVAC), plumbing, plastering, brickwork and roofing. There are 3 different kind of sub-contractor in construction practice and they are: Nominated sub-contractor Domestic sub-contractor Named sub-contractor Nominated sub-contractor Is a person nominated by the Architect or Contract Administrator to the contractor in order to carry out the sub-contract work and there was a direct contractual relationship between the clients and the subcontractor. Other than that, contractor has the right to make reasonable objection on the selected sub-contractor by the Architect. Domestic sub-contractor Is a person who has direct contractual relationship with the main contractor. All the sub-contract work done by the employed sub-contractor has to be responsible by the main contractor. For example, if there is any sub-contract work done badly and cause the delay of the project then the main contractor have to responsible for it. Named sub-contractor Is similar to the domestic sub-contractor, but named sub-contractor often use in Intermediate Building Contract (IC) and Intermediate Building Contract with contractors design (ICD). The idea is to provide the employer with means of ensuring that particular parcels of work are carried out by sub-contractors of the employers choice. (Chappell D, 2007, pg 38). 2.0 Review the method of appointing a specialist sub-contractor A nominated sub-contractor is often appointed after the main contractor has started work, so one of the client benefits is that specialist design can continue after work has commenced on site. A prime cost sum is included within the main contractors tender document (a bill of quantities or specification of work). On top of this the main contractor is required to price overheads, profit and any items of attendance it has to provide, such as the use of site facilities, provision of a secure storage area etc. The value of the prime cost sum is omitted from the Bill of Quantities and replaced by the nominated subcontractors accepted quotation and the main contractors on costs are adjusted as appropriate. (Electrical Mechanical Contractor magazine 2005) There are some reasons for nomination of sub-contractor: The employer will have his freedom to choose a sub-contractor that he wishes to use and is not based on price. The employer can take control of the timing involvement and appointment of sub-contractor to meet his requirement. The employer has the chance to make comparison which sub-contractor is better and suitable for the particular sub-contract work. Time is saved by introducing formal links between the sub-contractor and the consulting engineer, architect, QS. Hence, there are no long chains of correspondence and quick action on price, design, programme, variations etc. is established. In a project there will be some specialist works which only can done by the specialist team like sub-contractor. The nominated sub-contractor can be involved early and so his design expertise and his knowledge of the contract and co-ordination of services can be utilized. 2.1 Procedure of nomination The standard form of nominated sub-contract tender 1998 Edition (NSC/T) which comprises in 3 parts. Part 1: Invitation to tender to a subcontractor by the Architects/The contract administrator During the part 1, the invitation to tender to a subcontractor (NSC/T) of a standard form of tender will be completed by the Architect. Other than that, the relevant section of the employer/ nominated sub contractor agreement, (NSC/W), and both documents, together with the drawing/specification/bill of quantities which describe the work will be completed and sent by the Architect to those companies the employer who wishes to invite to tender. Part 2: Tender by the Subcontractor During this part, those subcontractors who are interesting in this tender will complete the standard form of tender and the relevant sections of the warranty, (NSC/W) and return both documents to the Architect. After the Architect had received both documents, one of the sub contractors will be selected by the Architect and will arrange to the employer to sign and confirm of the approval of the sub contractors tender and to execute the warranty, (NSC/W). Then, the Architect nominates the selected sub contractor to the main contractor by using the standard nomination instruction, (NSC/N). Other than that, a copy of the invitation of tender and the successful sub contractors tender with all the documents and details in part 1 will be sent by the Architect to the contractor under clause 35.6. Once the contractor gets receipt of those documents, within 7 days, he may either accept or he may exercise his right of reasonable objection to the selected tender. If the contractor made a reasona ble objection in writing to the architect within the 7 working days, under clause 35.5 Architect may either issue further instruction to remove the objection so that the contractor can comply or accept the objection and nominate another sub contractor. Part 3: Particular Conditions (To be agree by the contractor and the subcontractor nominated under clause 35.5) Under the ‘Particular Condition set out in this part of (NSC/T), these include sub-contract period, insurance details, and the identity of the adjudicator and trustee stake-holder. Once reached the arrangement on Particular Condition, the contractor and sub contractor sign (NSC/T) part 3 and execute the sub-contract articles of agreement, (NSC/A), which together with reference the sub-contract conditions (NSC/C). After both of them had signed (NSC/T) part 3, a copy of signed (NSC/T) part 3 together with the executed sub-contract articles of agreement, (NSC/A) will be sent to the Architect for his records. 3.0 Review the method of appointing a specialist sub-contractor Post JCT 2005 JCT 2005 is a new improved version to replace the JCT 1998 because there are many of the problems that arose on- site and in practice still failed to resolve despite of its length and complexity of JCT 1998. (James Davison 2005 pg13). In sub contract, there are also many problems arise between main and sub-contractor because a project is not ready for a sub-contractor to commence work on the date anticipated and then sub-contractor may say that he wants more money because of the commencement of sub-contract was delayed. (Chappell D, 2007, pg 37) Hence, in the new version of JCT 2005 there is no more nomination of sub-contractor, only kind of sub-contractor which is domestic sub-contractor. Since nomination has been removed, some new clauses regarding to the sub-contracting in JCT 2005 is shown as below: Clause 3.7 in JCT 2005 consent to sub-contracting The Contractor shall not without the consent of the Architect/ Contract Administrator sub contract the whole part of work or any part of the work to the sub-contractor and such consent shall not be unreasonable delayed or withheld the project. During contractor design proportion, contractor shall not without the consent of the employer sub-contract the design to the sub-contractor and is similar to the previous, such consent shall not be unreasonable delayed or withheld the project. Clause 3.8 in JCT 2005 List in Contract bills The Contract Bills provide that certain work measured or otherwise described in those Bills and priced by the Contractor is to be carried out by persons named in a list in or annexed to the Contract Bills and selected from that list by and at the sole discretion of the Contractor. Not less than 3 person the list shall comprise, additional persons to the list can be add by the contractor at any time prior to the execution of a binding sub-contract and with the consent of the employer or (Architect/ Contract Administrator act on his behalf ) which shall not be unreasonably delayed or withheld the project. If at any time prior to the execution of binding sub-contract the list stills less than three person, then the employer and contractor shall agreement add the names of the others person to make it not less than three person in the list. Other than that, the work shall be carried out by the contractor and the person selected from the list by the contractor will be the sub-contractor an d carry out the sub-contract work. If at any time before the contractor has entered into a building sub-contract the number of firms able and willing to carry out the work falls below: The employer and the contractor must agree on the addition of more firms so that the list comprises at least three. Contractor can carry out the work itself; however, contractor also can sub-let the work to any sub-contractor of its choice provided the architect gives consent. . (Chappell D, 2007, pg 37) 4.0 Review the method of appointing a specialist subcontractor NEC 3 ECC 2005 Normally NEC 3 was used in the government project. Under this standard form of contract, Project Manager plays a very important role in sub-contracting. He is the one who accept and reject the sub-contract with reasonable reason stated in this contract, not like other form of contract like JCT 05. In this standard form of contracts, the rules for the contractor to appoint sub-contractor to carry out sub-contract work were strict and details. Clause 26.1 Contractor have to responsible for all his work and if he sub-contract work then he have to responsible for all the sub contract work also. Clause 26.2 The contractor submits the name of each proposed sub-contractor to the Project Manager for acceptance. The contractor only can appoint sub-contractor to carry out sub-contract work for him when the Project Manager had accepted the proposed sub-contractor. Clause 26.3 The contractor submits the proposed conditions of contract for each sub-contract to the project manager for acceptance unless An NEC contract is proposed The Project Manager has agreed that no submission is required Clause 26.4 In this clause, there are two reasons stated that the Project Manager can use to reject the sub-contract condition; Sub-contract condition which not allow the contractor to provide the works Sub-contract condition does not include a statement that the parties to the subcontract should act in a spirit of mutual trust and co-operation. Project manager only can reject the sub-contract condition with these two reasons, if project manager was rejected the contractor not within these two reasons and in the end the contractor cant finish the work or delayed the project then contractor was entitled for compensation. 5.0 Reasons behind why nomination has been stopped Nomination of sub-contractor has been stopped after JCT 1998 because of many reasons, there are: Problems between main and sub-contractors arise because a project is not ready for a sub-contractor to commence work on the date anticipated. If the commencement of the sub-contract delayed, the sub contractor may say that it wants more money, or even that it cannot, at a later date, fit the work into its programme. (Chappell D, 2007, pg 37). Due to the late commencement of the sub-contract, sub-contractor may want more money because of his labours who are waiting for him to start the work in the project, so there will be an argument. Lack of management of the progress of the sub-contractor work on site because of the main contractor is not responsible for delay by nominated sub-contractors. Confuses lines of communication and management because the sub-contractor will be answerable to the architect, main contractors and others on same issue. Contractor may have no right to choose who carries out that part of the works. Unless there are very clear grounds, otherwise most main contractors are reluctant to try to exercise their right of reasonable objection. Contractor being forced to employ the sub-contractor on the basis of a standard form of contract, in this situation, contractor is unable to impose his own terms and conditions which may be more useful for them during the work on site. Nominated sub-contractor can be difficult to manage and control because of their direct links with the professional team and the division of contractual responsibility for their performance, which is owed to the employer in respect of design and progress and to the main contractor in respect of quantity of work and materials. Employer need to take full responsible on sub-contractor, if any work cant finish by the sub-contractor and cause delay to the project, the contractor entitle to claim for extension of time. Employer has no right against the main contractor in the event of defective design by the sub-contractor. (Jennie Price 1994 pg40-41) 6.0 conclusions As a conclusion, after review JCT 1998, JCT2005 and NEC 3 ECC 2005 standard form of contracts I think that the standard form of contract need to be amended, merged and improved time by time to reduce conflicts and problems which may arise in the construction practice. From this assignment, we can know that in JCT 1998 sub-contractor was used and when come to JCT 2005 and NEC 3 EEC 2005 nominated sub-contractor had omitted due to many problems and conflicts which happen in between the contractor, sub-contractor and also client, so they are more focus on domestic sub-contractor in the latest version of JCT. In my opinion, I think that nominated sub-contractor and domestic sub-contractor both of them also had their own advantages and disadvantages. Because of the nominated sub-contractor had direct contractual relationship with the employer so employer have to responsible on sub-contract work and contractor gain benefit when the sub-contractor cant finish the work and cause delayed, he can claim for extension of time and the employer will suffer loss in this kind of situation. For the contractor, he is being force to employ the sub contractor and he is unable to impose his own terms and conditions which may be more useful for them during the work on site and many other reasons. Therefore, when come to the JCT 2005, nominated sub-contractor had omitted and domestic sub-contractor was use in this standard form of contract. By using the domestic sub-contractor, I think that the conflict had reduced because the sub-contractor was direct deal with contractor, so the management level was incre ase, the contractor fully responsible of sub-contract work and he is able to impose his own terms and conditions which are helpful and improve the quality of construction. Other than that, the procedure in appointing domestic sub-contractor under JCT 2005 was showing clear, simple and easy to understand because the contractor fully responsible in all the employment of sub-contractor compare to the JCT 1998 the procedure in appointing nominated sub-contractor is more complex. 7.0 References Barnes, P., 2008. JCT 05 06 Contracts. [pdf] 25 January. Available at: http://www.arbitrate.org.uk/speakers_papers/Peter%20Barnes%20JCT%202005%20%20CIArb%2023-01-08.pdf [Last accessed on 26 July 2009] Brian, E. Rawling Associates, 2003. Nominated or Names? [pdf] 27 September. Available at: http://www.brianerawling.com/PDF/Jun%2001%20~%20Nominated%20or%20Named.pdf [Last accessed on 26 July 2009] CCL Department, 2005. What Sort of Subbie Are You? [pdf] March. Available at: http://www.eca.co.uk/IndustryGuidance/CCandL/Download/WhatSortOfSubbieRU.pdf [Last accessed on 23 July 2009] Chappell, D. (2007). Understanding JCT Standard Building Contracts. 8th Edi. Taylor Francis. London New York. Davison, J. (2005). JCT 2005 Whats New? RICS Books. Karnick, M., 2009. Nominating the best project subcontractors. [Online] 12 July. Available at: http://cmguide.org/archives/1357 [Last accessed on 23 July 2009] Brand, D., 2009. Contract nominations. [Online] 5 January. Available at: http://cmguide.org/archives/315 [Last accessed on 23 July 2009] Murdoch, J. Hughes, W. (2009). Construction Contracts: Law and Management. Taylor Francis. London New York. OFFICE OF GOVERNMENT COMMERCE (2005). NEC3 Engineering and Construction Contract: Option B: Priced Contract with Bill of Quantities. 3rd ed., Great Britain, Bell Bain Limited. Price, J. (1994). Sub-Contracting under the JCT Standard Form of Building Contract. Macmillan. RICS, 2005. A comprehensive guide to help you move from JCT 98 to JCT 05. [pdf] 3 May. Available at: http://www.ricsbooks.com/downloads/CONTRACT%20FINDER.pdf [Last accessed on 26 July 2009] Ryland, J., 2004. Nominated Sub-contractors- Whats in name? [pdf] 2 January. Available at: http://pprn.crippslaw.com/index2.php?option=com_contentdo_pdf=1id=63 [Last accessed on 23 July 2009]

Disability Essay -- essays research papers

In today’s society men have an attraction towards skinny women. The most gorgeous super models are thin and when other girls look at them, they get jealous. Many girls see this, and view themselves as being overweight and have a complex and a desire, which is to be skinny, this disease is called Anorexia. Anorexia is a disease, which affects mostly women and sometimes men. Anorexia is when you think you are fat, and you deprive yourself of food in order to be skinny. They see themselves as being fat and want to strive to be better than the "norm", and by that, being as skinny as possible. The glamorous women are skinny and we see this everywhere in movies, fashion shows, television, magazines etc†¦ Lennard Davis describes normalcy as "Each of us endeavors to be normal or else deliberates tries to avoid that state". (p47 Davis) We humans do everything by comparison, whether it be comparisons between cars, weight, looks, money, and pretty much anything else you can think of. Mostly all us strive to be better than "normal". Anorexia is a disease, which exists when a person has a goal, a goal to look better than anyone else does. Anorexia in itself is a disability because they are unable to function like a normal person should. Their bodies physically deteriorate and they have a complex that is practically incurable. Anorexia physically ruins your skin because you are not consuming any oils and the skin dries out. With prolong Anorexia, females are prone to losing their ability to give birth because of malnutrition. Mentally it kills you because all you think about is how you look, and looks aren’t that important in comparison to your personality. It is called the incurable disease because once someone has this complex they can never really let they eat a fatty food, or ever see them even a pound heavier than they are. When my sister was Anorexic, her doctor asked her, "What would you do if I forced you to eat a Burger Kingâ„ ¢ french fry?" She responded "I’d kill myself". At one point she weighed 97 pounds, and was 5 feet 10 inches tall. My sister fortunately has technically been cured because she eats normally but she still watches what she eats extremely carefully. "Any bell curve will always have at its extremities those characteristics that deviate from the norm. So, with the concept of the norm come... ...are over weight and starve themselves. Society categorizes people in basically two groups, pretty and ugly. Although I do not agree with this, many people are rude to many people who are over weight. If you go to a school where the average girl weighs 160lbs and you weigh 140lbs you may be placed in a category with the "pretty" group. On the other hand if the situation is reversed and the average girl weighs 115lbs, and you weigh 120lbs you may be in the "ugly" group which causes many people to become self conscious and go anorexic. In my sisters case she used to hang out with a group of girls who were very pretty and she had a complex and wanted to look better than the rest of them. Her way was starvation, and once she got to her best looking stage, the "ideal" point, she kept on starving herself leading to detrimental consequences. Many people have many different ideas about anorexia and how it is trying to be more like the "norm" by removing a stigma of being overweight, like in my sisters case except she was never really overweight. Ideology plays a big role in this as well because they never get to their ideal state causing problems.

The Sixth Sense Essay -- essays papers

The Sixth Sense The Sixth Sense, directed and written by M. Night Shyamalan, follows the troubled life of eight-year-old Cole Sear, played by Haley Joel Osment, who is haunted by his supernatural abilities to see and communicate with the dead. Being sought after by the disturbed spirits of his hometown of Philadelphia, Cole must reconcile this frightening power with his desperate desire to be normal. Growing more isolated from his helpless mother and distrustful of his peers in school, Cole soon encounters child psychologist Dr. Malcolm Crow (Bruce Willis), who is led by obsessive ambitions, although weakened by the thought of his neglected wife. Still, Malcolm represents the only hope for dissolving the horror and restoring sanity. The main character would have to be Dr. Malcolm Crow played by Bruce Willis. Early on in the story is attacked by a former patient. The experience leaves him traumatized, and lost. Something inside him has died. Dr. Crow feels the only way to redeem himself for failing to help that former patient is to somehow find a way to help Cole. Wearing in a dull gray suit, he brings a sadness to his character’s detachment that supports the entire production. The movie The Sixth Sense is made in a very unconventional way. The end really changes the sequence of the movie. The end of the movie finally makes the whole movie understandable. There is a very strange flow in the sequence of the plot. In my opinion, the very last scene should have bee...

Benazir Bhutto Shaheed Bibliography

Benazir Bhutto , 1953-2007, prime minister of Pakistan (1988-90; 1993-96), daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto . Educated at Radcliffe and Oxford, she returned to Pakistan shortly before her father was overthrown by General Zia ul-Haq in 1977. Under detention and then in exile, she returned in 1986 to lead the Pakistan People's party (PPP) and to fight military rule. In Nov. , 1988, three months after President Zia ul-Haq died in a plane crash, Bhutto's alliance gained a narrow majority in parliamentary elections, and she became prime minister, the first female leader of a Muslim nation.Her government, marked by continuous intrigue and able to accomplish little, was dismissed by President Gulam Ishaq Khan in Aug. , 1990. He accused her, her husband, Asif Ali Zadari, and her party of corruption. Zadari was held (1990-93) on various charges, although eventually acquitted, and the PPP lost the late 1990 elections. In 1993, Bhutto again became prime minister. By then a more seasoned politici an, she made alliances, including with the military, that enabled her to deal with some of Pakistan's deep-seated problems.In Nov. , 1996, though, her government was again dismissed. Zadari was accused of murdering Bhutto's brother, a political rival, as well as of accepting kickbacks, and was imprisoned; sweeping corruption charges were brought against Bhutto. In 1999, Bhutto and Zadari were both convicted of corruption; Bhutto appealed the verdict while living in exile in England and the United Arab Emirates.In 2001 the Pakistani supreme court set aside the corruption charges facing Bhutto and Zadari and ordered their retrial, but a Swiss court convicted the couple of money laundering in 2003. Bhutto was barred from running in the 2002 Pakistani parliamentary elections. Zadari was released from prison in 2004, a move that appeared designed to improve the Musharraf government's relations with the PPP; he subsequently left Pakistan. In Oct. 2007, after extended negotiations with the government, Bhutto returned to Pakistan, intending to run for prime minister in the scheduled Jan. , 2008 elections. On her return, she survived an attempt on her life that killed more than 130 persons, but was assassinated two months later in an attack, widely ascribed to Islamic militants, that followed a political rally in Rawalpindi. Her 19-year-old son, Bilawal Bhutto Zardari, assisted by her husband, succeeded her as PPP leader.

My Aim in Life Essay

Aim is the target which we want to achieve towards which our physical and mental abilities are focused. Life is the period which starts from the time of birth and ends at death. People have their own strength, culture and liking. Depending upon these elements people have different kinds of aims in life. For example, some people are doctors, engineers, Charter Accountants, pilots, teachers and many more. Our life is too short so we have to strive to attain our aim with all our hard work. The main objective for achieving the aim is to get material pleasures, mental happiness as well as satisfaction. Once a person achieves his aim he can live a prosperous life. My aim in life is to become a successful gynecologist. Gynecologist is a doctor which deals with the health of female reproductive system. To accomplish this aim I am planning to study +2 in India taking Science as the main subject after I attend my SLC examinations. After that I want to become a medical student of a top university of gynecology. I will attend different kinds of trainings, research and programs. This profession is also respected all over the world. I have been inspired by one of the top gynecologist of Nepal, Dr. Supatra Koirala. The present scenario of the reproductive healthcare of the women in Nepal in overall is not satisfactory. Due to this, the maternal and child mortality rate of our country is very high. I would conduct different awareness programs in the remote areas of our country and provide free medical services to the economically back warded people and be a helping hand for the development of my country. Thus, once I achieve my aim I would help to improve the reproductive and sexual healthcare of the women countrywide. I want to make the women of my society healthier and happier. By becoming a gynecologist, I would live a prosperous life and be a productive and global citizen of my country.

Commentary on Tash Aw’s Harmony Silk Factory Essay

The extract from the novel â€Å"The Harmony Silk Factory† by Tash Aw, seems to serve as an introduction within the larger context of the complete novel. The central theme of the extract is the concept of appearance VS reality; some things are, in reality, not what they appear to be. Through the use of characterisation and setting, the author manages to bring out this theme. In addition, the use of setting and characterisation creates a degree of tension within the extract, and draws the reader into the story. Characterisation plays a major part in the extract. The main character of the extract is also the narrator. The narrator is characterised through the use of many literary devices; through his narration, aspects of his personality are revealed to the reader. We find that the narrator has two sides: the face he shows the world around him and the side that the reader is introduced to through his narration. The side that the narrator shows to the world around him and the side of him revealed to the reader are two different personalities. His external appearance is one of a quiet, non-existent, seemingly inconsequential person as can be seen from the fact that â€Å"none of the visitors ever noticed [him]†. However, this quiet exterior belies the fact that he observes all the comings and goings within the silk harmony factory. â€Å"From my upstairs window, I saw everything unfold. Without father ever saying anything to me†. The narrator is fully aware of all his father’s smuggling activities â€Å"opium and heroin and Hennessy XO† and bribing of the â€Å"Thai soldiers†¦with American cigarettes and low-grade gemstones† but never lets his father catch on to that fact. The narrator also states that he is only of â€Å"modest intellect† and this is supported by his father’s belief that he would â€Å"always be a dreamer and a wastrel†. We find however, that his quiet demeanour conceals an observant, keen intellect. Contrary to his self-deprecating statement, we notice that he displays an extraordinary sense of awareness in a child of his age, suggesting that he is extremely intelligent. Even as a child he â€Å"was aware of what [his] father did†. His action of lifting the linoleum and pressing his ear to the floorboards to listen into his father’s Safe Room reveals to us his ingenuity and is a reflection of his intellect. While he does not mange to discern any information, he is sharp enough to realise that the â€Å"low, muffled rumble† was the â€Å"tipping of diamonds onto the green baize table†. While the narrator may appear to be of merely modest intellect, it seems that in reality he is incredi bly intelligent for a young child. His self-deprecating statement also serves to highlight his actual cleverness and quick mind. The theme of appearance VS reality can also be seen in the characterisation of two minor characters: the general and the young lady in the car. The narrator tells us that the general â€Å"didn’t look much like a soldier, but he had a Mercedes-Benz with a woman in the back seat†, which would indicate a fairly high level of affluence and power which comes with the rank of a general in the army. With his â€Å"cheap grey shirt† and gold teeth, the man may not have looked like a general, but other indications would have exposed the reality of what he really was. This is similarly echoed in the characterisation of the young woman in the back seat of the car. The narrator describes her as having â€Å"fair skin, almost pure white, the colour of salt fields on the coast†. The narrator then goes on to state that â€Å"she was young and beautiful, and when she smiled I saw her teeth were small and brown†. This contrast between the state of her teeth and the colour of her skin further highlights the theme of appearance VS reality; while she appears to be pure and white on the outside, her teeth are dirty and decayed. This contrast is highlighted also by the use of visual imagery â€Å"salt fields† when describing the colour of her skin. Furthermore, the contrast between the general and the young woman also emphasizes the theme of appearance VS reality. The general wears a grey shirt, while the young woman is described as having white skin. Where the general’s teeth are gold in colour, hers are small and brown. From this we can see that outward appearance does not seem to be a very good indicator of what the reality really is. Finally, the setting also contributes back to the theme of appearance VS reality. The name of the factory â€Å"The harmony silk factory†, which becomes synonymous with the house, gives no indication as to the activities of vice conducted there. Both physically and figuratively, the narrator’s house seems to be hiding behind the factory. The theme of appearance VS reality is manifested in the physical setting of the Harmony Silk Factory. The characterisation and setting, besides bringing out the theme of the appearance VS reality, also serves to create tension in the story and cause the reader to want to read on. The setting of the house, with its â€Å"small mossy courtyard which never got enough sunlight† gives the location of the extract an air of mystery; the lack of light and dampness of the place (as can be seen by the growth of moss) further builds upon the mysteriousness of the setting. This description appears in the first line of the extract, and the reader’s curiosity is pricked as to what actually goes on within the Harmony Silk factory. Also, the characterisation of the narrator serves to lead the reader on to read the rest of the novel. How is this achieved? Firstly, the narrator is a nameless, 1st person narrator. The use of the 1st person narration serves to give the tone of the extract a feeling of intimacy, or closeness to the subject matter. At the same time, his lack of a name distances him from the reader, again creating an air of mystery which surrounds him. Secondly, the tone of the narrator is very â€Å"matter-of-fact†. He describes somewhat shocking, illegal proceeds with the same tone one would use to describe everyday activities. He matter-of-factly states â€Å"Mainly he smuggles opium and heroin and Hennessy XO† and â€Å"I knew what he was up to and whom he was with†. The narrator describes theses happenings with a certain detachment which seems nonchalant or could be due to the fact that he is already used to this sort of behaviour. In fact, the narrator comes across as unfazed by all his father’s wrongdoings and does not seem affected in any way. This matter-of-fact tone is further highlighted by the narrator’s use of literary devices such as verbal irony. The use of verbal irony is evident throughout the extract. One of the first instances is in the 2nd paragraph in which the narrator describes the type of people who visit his house. He describes his Father’s clients as if they were guests or VIPs. â€Å"Entry was strictly by invitation† with â€Å"privileged few† being granted access; he states that only the â€Å"liars, cheats, traitors and skirt chasers† of â€Å"the highest order† are allowed in. These individuals have been seemingly elevated to a position of importance but by describing them in this way, the narrator has revealed them to be merely the scum of society. Another instance of verbal irony is in the line â€Å"Now I would give everything to be the son of a mere liar and cheat†. The irony is in the fact that the narrator views his father is so vile that he would rather be the son of someone who only cheats and lies. Also further irony can be found in the line â€Å"my crime-funded education to good use†. We find that he is now using his education, paid for by his father’s crimes, to uncover his father’s crimes. The use of verbal irony builds upon the narrator’s characterisation, as parts of his personality are slowly revealed to the reader. The narrator also uses an extremely convoluted and verbose way of narrating known as periphrasis. His manner of speaking is roundabout and elaborate. He uses ellipsis to interrupt his own narrative, â€Å"partly for convenience – the only people who came†¦ – partly because my father’s varied†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The narrator constantly interjects his own narrative with interruptions and unnecessary lines such as â€Å"gold, real solid gold†. The use of unnecessarily long paragraphs to say a simple thing also add on to his convoluted manner of narration. The second last paragraph could have been shortened by saying â€Å"I am now at peace and am not ashamed to reveal the story of my father’s life†. However, he instead says â€Å"there is another reason I now feel particularly well placed†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦I am at peace†. The use of periphrasis also heightens the melodramatic way the narrator leads the reader on. Phrases such as â€Å"that wasn’t all he was† and â€Å"†¦I have searched for this all my life. Now, at last, I know the truth and I am no longer angry. In fact, I am at peace† serve to heighten the tension within the paragraph. He describes his father’s past as â€Å"terrible† and the title he gives to his tale, â€Å"The true story of the infamous Chinaman called Johnny†, seems to elevate his father’s story to one legendary importance. The use of the phrase â€Å"true story† also lends a sense of credibility to his account. The revelation of the title to the reader is the climax of the tension that has been building in the last few paragraphs, albeit a somewhat anti-climatic one. This climax (or anti-climax) serves to leave the reader wanting more and leads the reader on to continue reading the rest of the story. The narrator’s self-deprecating and quirky way of narrating serves to endear the narrator to the reader. We also discover certain facts about his childhood through his narration. At no point in the extract does a narrator mention his mother. This may only be a conjecture, but the lack of a motherly figure in his life, a lack of love, may have contributed to his strange and unusual way of narrating and also his self-deprecating attitude. Also, we find that he may have endured physical abuse as a child from the line â€Å"I had become used to this kind of punishment† in response to his father twisting his ear. This makes the reader increasingly sympathetic to the narrator as the narrative progresses. Thus, when the narrator begins using melodrama to capture the attention of the reader and lead the reader on to the rest of the novel, the reader follows with little resistance. This characterisation and narration, coupled with the mysterious atmosphere created by the setting, creates a sort of tension which compels the reader to read on. It engages the reader and draws the reader into the world the author has created. As we have seen characterisation and setting both have a dual purpose. If this extract is the beginning of the novel, then the author has succeeded in drawing the reader into the novel. By using both characterisation and setting to bring out the theme and simultaneously create tension, the author has succeeded in creating a world with characters that engage readers and has successfully written an effective and exciting beginning to the novel.

Juvenile Offenders: Race and Ethnicity Essay

â€Å"Researchers have long observed differences in rates of serious juvenile and adult offending among ethnic and racial groups in the United States. These differences have prompted competing theoretical interpretations and public policy debates. However, conclusions about the racial differences in serious and violent juvenile offending have been reached primarily using individual-level data that, when used alone, yield incomplete results. Multilevel analyses that consider community and contextual factors have the potential to produce a fuller understanding of the meaning of these differences (, 2002).† This paper will first describe the racial distribution of serious and violent offending among juveniles in the United States. It will provide a picture of the short-term national trends for offending patterns by race and ethnicity and summarize research findings on racial and ethnic differences in chronic juvenile offending. Various explanations are given for the racial and ethnic differences. This paper will include recommendations for improving understandings of these differences and implications for guiding prevention and intervention efforts. Data from the 1998 UCR indicates that differential rates of arrest for crime are related to race (Snyder, 1999). Arrests of white juveniles (under age 18) constituted 71 percent of all juvenile arrests compared with 26 percent for black youth. American Indian or Alaska Native and Asian or Pacific Islanders account for 1 and 2 percent, respectively (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1999). Black youth were overrepresented, given the fact that they make up 15 percent of the juvenile population compared with 79 percent white and 5 percent other races. The distribution by index crime type varies, however. Black youth accounted for 42 percent of arrests for violent crime compared with 55 percent for white youth (3 percent were youth of other races). Black youth, when compared with white youth, were most overrepresented in arrests for robbery (54 percent and 43 percent, respectively) and murder and non-negligent manslaughter (49 percent and 47 percent, respectively). Black youth were least disproportionately involved in arson arrests (18 percent and 80 percent, respectively) (Snyder, 1999; Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1999). Juvenile involvement in crime by race has been generally consistent over the past several decades (LaFree, 1995). However, the racial gap in rates of homicide widened dramatically between 1986 and 1994. Black youth were responsible for the majority of the increase in homicides by juveniles in these years â€Å"and for the majority of the decline thereafter† (Snyder and Sickmund, 1999). If all serious crime is considered, a more complex picture emerges. Between 1983 and 1992, the juvenile arrest rates for all types of violent crimes increased 82 percent among white youth and 43 percent among black youth (Snyder and Sickmund, 1995). The pattern of change was greatest for robbery and homicide arrest rates. In 1983, black youth were approximately five times more likely to be arrested for homicide than were white youth; in 1992, that ratio was more than seven to one. What is the meaning of these race-specific trends in violence? Blumstein (1995) attributed the growth of youth homicide to illicit drug markets into which youth had been recruited. Juveniles working in these markets armed themselves, and so the use of guns was â€Å"diffused† to other teenagers in the community. The notion of gun diffusion is supported by the concomitant increase in the homicide rate among black juveniles from 1986 to 1994 but has not been supported by other research (Howell, 1997). More comparative research is needed to understand racial and ethnic differences in rates of offending. In this area of research, a number of case studies were conducted in several U.S. cities in the 1980’s among youth of Hispanic ancestry. Between 1980 and 1985, homicide arrest rates for 10 to 17 year old Hispanics in New York City were more than twice those of whites (Rodriguez, 1988). In southern California, the homicide death rate for 15 to 24 year old Latino males during 1980 was more than four times the rate for white Anglo males (Valdez, Nourjah, and Nourjah, 1988). At the same time in Chicago, Latino males between ages 15 and 19 were homicide victims 4 ½ times more often than non-Latino white males (Block, 1988). These findings suggest the importance of taking ethnicity into consideration when examining youth violence data. Another factor to consider when interpreting racial and ethnic differences is the length of time and degree to which youth are involved in serious crime. UCR data are not helpful in this regard. However, a few longitudinal studies have shed some light on this issue using official data. Relying on police data from a 1945 Philadelphia cohort, Wolfgang, Figlio, and Sellin (1972) found that race and socioeconomic status were related to the frequency and seriousness of offenses. These findings were confirmed using the 1958 Philadelphia cohort. However, more data are needed to fully understand the relationship between race and chronic offending. Researchers and criminologists have long been aware of racial and ethnic differences in serious juvenile offending. Interpreting these disparities, however, is another matter; no one theory has adequately addressed the reasons for them. Criminologists have not paid enough attention to the extent to which socioeconomic disparity accounts for differences in rates of violence, even though they have tended to attribute high rates of crime to economic disadvantages. These omissions are in part due to reliance on individual-level data to identify those persons most likely to offend. However, individual-centered research is unlikely to improve understanding of the group differences. It does not take into consideration the larger socio-structural characteristics that distinguish groups and individuals. For example, the developmental life courses of blacks and whites in the United States are affected by their membership in historically distinct social and economic groups. Community-level research can be used to study this larger context and offer great potential in interpreting the meaning of racial and ethnic differences in offending. Reference Blumstein, A. 1995. Youth violence, guns, and the illicit-drug industry. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 86(1):10-36. Howell, J.C. 1997. Youth gang homicides, drug trafficking, and program interventions. In Juvenile Justice and Youth Violence, edited by J.C. Howell. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., pp. 115-132. Federal Bureau of Investigation. 1999. Crime in the United States 1998. Uniform Crime Reports. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. Snyder, H.N. 1999. Juvenile Arrests 1998. Bulletin. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Snyder, H.N., and Sickmund, M. 1995. Juvenile Offenders and Victims: A National Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Snyder, H.N., and Sickmund, M. 1999. Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999 National Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Wolfgang, M.E., Figlio, R.M., and Sellin, T. 1972. Delinquency in a Birth Cohort. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.